Puerto Rican History: Eugenio Maria de Hostos

¡Hola! Evertybody...
The following was taken from a talk by one of my s/heros, Aurora Flores. Journalist, educator, activist and swinging musician (her band, Zon del Barrio rawks!), I always enjoy her contributions. Today she pays tribute to one of the greatest Latin@s ever, Eugenio Maria de Hostos (she’s his great grand niece). This man’s vision and work still reverberates throughout the world.

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-=[ Eugenio Maria de Hostos: Educator, Writer, Patriot ]=-

By Aurora Flores (great grand-niece of Hostos)

Remarks written & delivered at the 30^th Anniversary Celebration of the Founding of Hostos Community College: March 25, 2006 (click here for audio)

“Ideals that take days to conceive, mature over centuries of struggles,” wrote Eugenio Maria de Hostos in the late 1800s. One of the most distinguished and illustrious men in Puerto Rico’s history, Hostos was known worldwide as educator, humanist, abolitionist, feminist, philosopher, writer, politician and above all an early advocate of self-government for Puerto Rico. A Renaissance man of the Caribbean with a clear, liberal, international and pragmatic mindset, he educated an entire continent and was called “Citizen of America.” He advocated for a Federation of the Antilles embracing Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic and devoted his life to seeking the political independence of Cuba and Puerto Rico.

His many essays, articles and books reflect his philosophy on social justice, political science, virtues and moralities for social reform and advocacy. He was an important advocate for the abolition of slavery, the rights of Chinese laborers in Peru and the higher education of women in law and science in Chile playing an important role in reforming the educational system for women throughout Latin America. He established the first teacher’s colleges and advanced methods for teaching throughout the Caribbean, in particular the Dominican Republic. He was known throughout Latin America as a publicist of civic reforms, a rationalist in ethics who believed that “to be civilized and to be moral is the same thing.” And as a writer of graceful and didactic prose.

Eugenio Maria de Hostos y Bonilla was born on January 11, 1839 in the village of Rio Cañas near Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. He was the first of the Ostos family originating from Spain and settling in Cuba to be born in Puerto Rico. First educated in San Juan, he was sent to Spain at 13 to study at the Institute of Higher Education in Bilbao earning a law degree at the University of Madrid. As a student in Madrid, he became interested in politics. While studying law, he wrote newspaper and magazine articles on the need for autonomy for the Spanish West Indies.

He distinguished himself as an essayist and orator in the movement to abolish the slave trade with Africa and to liberalize colonial rule. Already he had conceived the hope that Spain’s territories in the Antilles might be confederated as an independent republic.

He joined the Spanish Republicans because their leadership promised autonomy for Cuba and P.R. To express that hope, he wrote the first of more than 50 books, the allegorical novella La Peregrinación de Bayoán in 1863, describing the voyage to Spain by the Arawak leaders of Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Dominican Republic advocating independence and self governing autonomy for these island nations. When the republicans triumphed over the monarchy three years later in 1869, Hostos’ hope for peaceful change was dashed when the new Spanish constitution left colonialism firmly in place. After realizing the betrayal, he refused the post of Governor of Barcelona and headed for New York.

Once in N.Y., Hostos joined the Puerto Rican Section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party organized by Cuban poet and patriot Jose Marti becoming editor of a "La Revolución," the journal of the Cuban revolutionary movement. He was joined here, with his ideas embraced by, Ramon Betances, leader of the "1868 Grito de Lares" uprising along with Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Here Hostos advanced his formula for an independent Antillean Confederation with a base in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Jamaica.

However he was also disappointed that in Cuba and P.R. there were many who wanted their independence from Spain but who did not agree with the revolutionary ideals. Instead, they preferred to be annexed by, and become a part of, the U.S.

Three years later he embarked on a tour of South America to promote the ideals of a united Antellano Federation, recruit support and raise funds for this liberation movement. He traveled within the U.S. France, Colombia, Panama, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, St. Thomas, the Dominican Republic, Cuba and P.R. And although he had come from a family of privilege, wherever he traveled, he lived humbly among the people and the leaders he was cultivating.

In Peru, he helped to develop the country’s educational system and spoke out against the harsh treatment and exploitation of the Chinese immigrants.

In Chile, he championed the cause of women’s education, particularly in law and medicine.

Hostos arrived in Chile in December of 1871. As professor at the University of Chile he gave a speech titled “The Scientific Education of Women” proposing that the government permit women into their colleges.

He immediately began a controversial campaign of lectures and essays defending the women’s right to education observing and comparing the plight of women as: “…a plant that vegetates without a clue of its existence.” (“Es una planta que vegeta, sin una conciencia que conoce su existencia.”) Hostos turned it around on the men claiming that, “If women are charged with the upbringing of our children, how can they teach those children and develop their intellectual and mental capacities if she does not know how to direct her own life.”

Hostos went on to condemn the educational system in Chile with respect to women by pointing out the following:

“They have taught her to read so that she can read ‘novellas.’ Sometimes she reads novels of religion, sometimes she seeks refuge in the religion of the novel; she has been taught to write so that she may write the novel of her love in the stereotypes from the most stupid teachers who happen to be at hand; she has been taught to pray so that her lips may mechanically evoke what her conscious mind fails to understand; she has been taught to work so that she may do the same work mechanically every day; she has been taught to sing in order to enhance her attractiveness; she has been taught to play the piano all her life, to accompany the dancing of those who are fit only to dance; she has been taught to mistreat a foreign tongue so that she can forget or abuse her own; she has been taught to draw so that she can embroider to perfection or occupy her periods of boredom with the ideal of a man whom she cannot find around her.

Woman have been reduced to the level of a two-legged animal that procreates its kind, that feeds its offspring from its breasts, that sacrifices to the life of the species its own individual existence.”

He went on to reason with the male educators saying: The only thing needed for education is intellectual capacity and the exercise of reason: Reason has no gender, no sex, “La razon no tiene sexo.” It is the same faculty in men as in women operating and functioning precisely in the same manner. (“Y es la misma facultad con sus mismas operaciones y funciones en el hombre y en la mujer.”) If a man can recognize truth through the use of reason, so can a woman. In short, if a man is capable of higher learning, so are woman.

Soon after, Chile allowed women to enter its college educational system.

In Argentina, he campaigned for the construction of the first trans-Andean railroad that, when built, was named in his honor. In Brazil, as correspondent for the Buenos Aires journal La Nación, he wrote a series of articles on the country’s natural history.

After a brief return to New York in 1874, Hostos continued his travels first to the Dominican Republic where he founded the first college for teachers implementing advanced teaching techniques before going to Venezuela where, in 1877 he married the Cuban-born Belinda de Ayala. P.R. poet Lola Rodriguez de Tio, was their maid of honor.

Hostos’ career as an educator began in 1879 when he established himself in the Dominican Republic as founder and director of that country’s first teachers college. First son Eugenio Carlos was born during this year.

For the following nine years Hostos worked intensively to reform the educational system in D. R. often undertaking on his own the writing of the textbooks used. By 1881, his first daughter Luisa Amelia was born followed by the birth of his second son, Bayoan Lautaro in 1882. In 1887 son, Adolfo José was born as the first graduates of the Dominican Teacher’s College were inducted as alumnus of the “Instituto de Señoritas” led by Salome Ureña de Henriquez. The following year Hostos creates the Night School for the Working class: “La Escuela Nocturna para la clase obrera.” He writes his classic book, “Moral Social.”

At the request of President Balmaceda of Chile, Hostos moved to Santiago in 1888 along with his wife, his children, Eugenio Carlos, Luisa Amelia, Bayoan and Adolfo who were born in D.R. He traveled to Chile via Panama and Curazao.

Hostos became the Chair in Constitutional Law at the University In Chile and undertook another nationwide project in pedagogical reform. His pilot school became one of the leading educational centers in Latin America. While in Chile, his son Filipo Luis Duarte was born in 1890.

Hostos returned to Cuba in 1895 to take part in the renewed struggle for independence. In 1898, he returned to New York and founded the “Liga de Patriotas” where he was named president. He then traveled with a delegation of Puerto Rican leaders including Julio J. Henna, Manuel Zeno Gandia and Rafael del Valle to Washington, D.C. to argue with President McKinley for the independence of Puerto Rico. Again, Hostos’ hopes were squashed as the United States government decided to retain Puerto Rico as a territory.

He returns to P.R. just long enough to establish “el Instituto Municipal” in Mayaguez.

Shortly thereafter, the Dominican government called him to reorganize the public education system of the island.

Hostos returned to the Dominican Republic in 1900 as director of the Central College and General Inspector of public education. He continued to play a major role in reorganizing the educational and railroad systems until his death on August 11, 1903 at his home in Las Marias, Santo Domingo where he remains buried in the Panteon Nacional until, as he requested, Puerto Rico is independent.

He wrote his own epitaph that says: “I wish that they will say that in that island Puerto Rico a man was born who loved truth, desired justice and worked for the good of mankind.”

In 1938, the 8th international Conference of America celebrated in Lima, Peru posthumously paid tribute to Hostos and declared him ”Citizen of the Americas and Teacher of the Youth.” Puerto Rico declared his birthday an official holiday. There is a monument honoring Hostos in Spain. In P.R. there are two monuments dedicated to Hostos, one in his native city of Mayaguez, created by renowned sculptor Tomas Batista and another in San Juan created by Jose Buscaglia Guillermety. In NY there is the Eugenio Maria de Hostos Community college of the City University of NY.

Hostos’ voluminous body of writings includes critical studies of Hamlet; Romeo and Juliet; An Historical Description of Puerto Rico; Lessons in Constitutional Law; Reform of Legal Education; Science of Pedagogy; Administrative Decentralization; Project for a General Law of Public Education; The Scientific Education of Women; Sociology and Social Ethics.

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¡Despierta Boricua!

My name is Eddie and I’m in recovery from civilization...

Anti-Immigrant Rhetoric Energize the Latin@ Vote!

¡Hola! Everybody...
It was a rough night for us progressives, but considering we're in midst of one of the worst financial fuck ups in modern history (caused by failed conservative policies), a jobless rate going through the roof, and a president who just doesn't seem to “get” it, it could’ve been worse. for example, if the GOP had real cojones, they would’ve hitched their wagons to the looneytarians rather than the rabid teabaggers. Loonies are more attractive to people who identify as “independents (really: indies are shamed conservatives for the most part).

Also, I don’t get all this hoopla about the teabaggers, they’re not anything new: they’re overwhelmingly white, overwhelmingly male, and overwhelmingly older. sounds like the same angry KKKristian KKKonsservatives to me!

The pundits are already writing eulogies for liberalism, claiming that voters have rejected progressive ideals. But this is so much bullshit. Half of the Blue Dog (conservative) incumbents were defeated, and by themselves accounted for close to half of the Democratic losses. Conservative democrats: Why vote for a make-believe conservative when you can vote for a true, meat and potatoes, rabid, foaming-at-the-mouth one?

Considering all the above factors and taking into account that the midterms have historically always been bad news for the party in power, this wasn’t really a mandate at all.

Yes, the old guard Cuban American come mierdas in Florida went out en masse for one of the dumbest muthfuckas I’ve ever seen, Rubio (and considering the intense competition for that the designation this election cycle, that’s saying a lot). On the “good news” front, Latin@s came out saved democratic ass in a number of high profile races. Here’s a good piece on Latin@s from America’s Voice...

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Energized by Anti-Immigrant Rhetoric, Latinos Win It for Dems in NV, CA

The Spanish-language press reports today on the Democrats’ defeat in the House of Representatives, and retention of a reduced majority in the Senate. They also focus on the role of Latino voters in key races, such as Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid’s reelection in Nevada and Jerry Brown’s victory in the California gubernatorial race. While the anti-immigrant rhetoric used by many Republican candidates motivated millions of Latinos to vote for Democrats by historic margins, the Republican majority in the House of Representatives presents an obstacle to passing immigration reform.

Latinos key to Harry Reid's and Jerry Brown's victories. EFE writes that

“exit polls reveal that Latinos represented 16% of the electorate in Nevada, surpassing even the presidential election in 2008, when the percentage was 15%. The strong presence of Hispanics at the polls could have been crucial to Democratic Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid’s victory."

La Opinión (Los Angeles) cites a Latino Decisions poll on the Hispanic vote commissioned by NCLR, SEIU and America’s Voice:

“One important reason for Brown’s triumph, according to the Latino Decisions poll, was the overwhelming Latino preference for the Democrat—to an extent never before seen in California: 86% for Brown and 13% for Whitman—which gave him an important advantage.”

The paper adds:

“This trend was repeated not only in California, but in other states where some candidates used the immigration issue--such as the Nevada Senate race and in Arizona, where the law SB 1070 became an issue in governor Jan Brewer’s reelection campaign.

“'This is the most Democratic vote we’ve ever seen in the Latino community—I mean, the margins are incredible,' said Matt Barreto, director of the polling firm Latino Decisions, noting that 'exactly in the states where anti-immigrant rhetoric was strongest—such as Nevada, Arizona and, in the case of California, with the episode with Whitman and the maid—is where Latinos revolted against Republicans."

Wins for Hispanic Republicans. The Spanish-language media also cover victories for Hispanic Republicans in Florida, Nevada and New Mexico. Marco Rubio has been elected to the U.S. Senate from Florida, and Brian Sandoval and Susana Martínez were elected governors of Nevada and New Mexico, respectively.

EFE writes that:

“while Florida’s Hispanic voters are divided with respect to Rubio, the new senator can provide a new perspective for Republicans in the debate over immigration reform.”

Anti-immigrant rhetoric swings Latinos for Democrats. EFE reports that, while Republican control of the House of Representatives will hinder the advance of an immigration reform bill in that chamber,

“in general, anti-immigrant rhetoric from the majority of Republican candidates was, ironically, a key factor in the mobilization of the millions of Latinos who came out to the polls. In Nevada and Arizona, where the immigration issue dominated statewide elections, 69% of Latino voters said that immigration was the driving factor behind their participation at the polls, according to the pro-reform group America’s Voice.”

The America's Voice series “‘Qué Pasa’ in Immigration” brings Spanish-language coverage of immigration and politics to a wider audience. Look for daily roundups (in English) of some of the best Spanish-language news.

The latest Spanish-language reporting and analysis on immigration can now be found at AmericasVoiceEspanol.com. Check it out!

Praise Poem Tradition

¡Hola! Everybody...
In some cultures, part of the coming-of-age ritual involved announcing yourself to the world. It was a way of identifying your gifts, of establishing who you were, and what you were bringing to your community. In a way, the praise poem tradition forced a member of a tribe or society to recognize and commit to their gifts. The following poem, written by Aurora Levins Morales, was inspired by her multicultural heritage and diversity. In it, she identifies the virtues of her diversity, the power she derives from her multi-ethnic make up. Perhaps you can write a poem following her format describing your own ethnic background.

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-=[ Child of the Americas ]=-


I am a child of the Americas,
a light-skinned mestiza from the Carribean,
a child of many diaspora, born into this continent at a crossroads.

I am a U.S. Puerto Rican Jew,
a product of the ghettos of New York I have never known.
An immigrant of the daughter and grandaughter of immigrants.
I speak English with passion: it's the tongue of my consciousness,
a flashing blade of cristal, my tool, my craft.

I am Caribeña, island-grown. Spanish is my flesh,
Ripples from my tongue, lodges in my hips:
the language of garlic and mangoes,
the singing of poetry, the flying gestures of my hands.
I am of Latinoamerica, rooted in the history of my continent,
I speak from that body.

I am not African. Africa is in me, but I cannot return.
I am not taína. Taíno is in me, but there is no way back.
I am not European. Europe lives in me, but I have no home there.

I am new. History has made me. My first language was spanglish.
I was born at the crossroads
and I am whole.

-- Aurora Levins Morales

Latinidad!

¡Hola! Everybody…
I’m headed out the annual 116th Street Festival in East Harlem …Tomorrow I will be attending the largest outdoor event in the U.S. -- the Puerto Rican Day Parade.

During the 1960’s an identity movement by Puerto Ricans in New York gave birth to an artistic movement encompassing literature and music. This new movement had its roots in a strong political background and was influenced by the black civil rights movement. Early Nuyorican writers were for the most part linked to activist organizations such as the Young Lords, organizations that promoted social and economic justice, and personal/ political empowerment. The movement brought a sense of pride and identity to Puerto Ricans and channeled their dissatisfaction into a political movement. Artistically, this movement had a huge impact on literature and music. More on Nuyoricans tomorrow. Today I want to share a poem that exemplifies what it means to be a Puerto Rican in a black and white world. I believe the Latino/a racial paradigm has the potential to transform the racial dynamics in the U.S.

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-=[ Child of the Americas ]=-

I am a child of the Americas,
a light-skinned mestiza of the Caribbean,
a child of many diaspora, born into this continent at a crossroads.

I am a U.S. Puerto rican Jew,
a product of the ghettos of new York I have never known.
An immigrant and the daughter and granddaughter of immigrants.
I speak English with passion: it's the tongue of my consciouness,
a flashing knife blade of cristal, my tool, my craft.

I am Caribeña, island grown. Spanish is my flesh,
Ripples from my tongue, lodges in my hips:
the language of garlic and mangoes,
the singing of poetry, the flying gesture of my hands.
I am of Latinoamerica, rooted in the history of my continent:
I speak from that body.

I am not African. Africa is in me, but I cannot return.
I am not taína. Taíno is in me, but there is no way back.
I am not European. Europe lives in me, but I have no home there.

I am new. History made me. My first language was spanglish.
I was born at the crossroads
and I am whole.

-- Aurora Levins Morales

Latino/as in the USA, pt. III

¡Hola! Everybody...
I’ve been getting lazy with my blogs. Sometimes my blog projects are too big. Here’s one of the Latino/a posts I promised. Pay attention because you might have to learn Spanish soon. LOL!

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-=[ Between Black and White, pt. 1 ]=-

I know a beautiful truth... I know I'm black, and I'm white/ and I'm red/ The blood of mankind flows in me
-- Ray Barretto, Together

When I lived down south, people would often express confusion about who or what I was. I was light-skinned with blue-eyes, but I spoke English/ Spanish fluently and the bulk of the people I hung out with were African Americans. I looked like a white man, but danced like a black man, and cussed you out in Spanish. LOL!

I think the Latino/a experience can inform the way race is discussed in this country. And please be assured: racial discourse in the country is nothing short of pathological. What I hope to do with the next two posts is offer a little insight and in that way lend what I feel is alternative, much-needed point of view.

For today, however, I’m just going to try to a little overview on Latino/a demographics and some introductory comments...

Masked by the controversy of the 2000 national elections (Bush’s Junta) and the historic election of President Barack Obama in 2008, was another historical revolution taking place. If the twentieth century was the “American Century,” the new century certainly points to an emerging prominence of U.S. Latino/as. Projections show that this group will grow to 25 percent of the U.S. population by 2050 and those immigrants are becoming U.S. citizens at an unprecedented rate. There is a vibrant, socially oriented middle class with economic power that has created a cohesive national Latino/a lobby considered a political force. Latino/as were the deciding factor in many critical races, including the 2000, 2004, and 2008 presidential elections. As I have mentioned previously (only half-jokingly), it is said that in 2000, Mexicans gave the presidency to Gore in California and that the Cubans took it away from him in Florida. Indeed, without the Latino/a vote, it is very unlikely that Obama would have won in 2008.

I should correct myself, we are not becoming, or arriving, Latino/as are a major political, economic, and cultural force in the United States. However, the paradox remains: it seems that Latino/as in the United States do not feel included, accepted, and most importantly, treated with respect no matter how hard they work and attempt to participate in the American way of life.

The existence of this paradox is one of the man y reasons why I am writing this series on Latino/as. I have written this with Latino/as in mind but also for those who possess a genuine interest in the history of Latino/a political thought and possible directions that it may take in the future. Finally, I offer this because most Latino/a youth are not taught their own history, and, if they are, this history is often biased and one-dimensional. Latino/a youth, in particular, need to have a political and historical sense of place, to be able to make sense of and become active in their social and political-economic realities. In short, my objective is to begin to raise the level of discourse of, by, and for Latino/as in the United States.

Throughout this series, I will be sharing links and sources for those uninterested in going a little deeper. There is no way for me to address the enormity of the Latino/a condition in several relatively short blog posts. Because of this limitation, I will confine the bulk of my discussion to U.S. Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans. If I ever decide to return to my graduate studies for my doctorate, maybe I’ll consider a major foray into Latino/a political thought and philosophy, but not today. LOL Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans were first subjected to the U.S. government through treaties and acts that not only signaled the end of military conquest or invasion, but also served as a real and symbolic entrance into American life for those involuntary and cultural U.S. citizens.

A demographic snapshot of these three groups shows that (20.5 million) Mexicans make up two thirds of Latino/as in the United States (32 million) and their population is increasing faster than that of any other group, including other Latino/as. There 6.6 million Puerto Ricans (11 percent of all Latino/as); 2.8 million are in the mainland US and 3.8 are on the island. There are approximately 1.5 million Cubans living in the United States (5% of all Latino/as). South Americans make up 13 percent of all Latino/as and there are 7 percent who fall under the "Other" category in the U.S. Census.

A close up of this snapshot reveals that almost one third of all Latino/as living in the following six counties or metropolitan areas: Los Angeles County, California (4.1 million); Miami-Dade, Florida (1.2 million); Cook County, Illinois (930,000); Harris County, Texas (908,053); Orange County, California (801,797); and New York City (two million). the political revolution is taking place because these human bodies are becoming active participants in the political process. furthermore, because of the age distribution of this population, there will be an increase in their portion of the electorate regardless of what happens to immigration. More to the point, voter registration among Latino/as increased by 164 percent in 1976-96 (compared to 31 percent for non-Latino/as). Voter turnout increased by 135 percent (compared to 21 percent for non-Latino/as).

To be sure, my focus will probably stop at the intersection of race. Diversity among Latino/as is not limited to national origin. As one scholar pointed out, Latino/as are the only group that proclaims its mestizaje (its mixture of races). A Latino/a can be of any race or ethnic group. In many ways, Latin America and the Caribbean have realized the American dream of a melting pot. There is, of course, the lingering issue of pigmentocracy (a hierarchy based on the color of skin), a form of latent, unspoken racism. However, Latino/as construct and converse about race in ways that is essentially different from the way it’s treated in the United States. It is here -- at the intersection of race, class, and ethnicity -- where I will begin my next post.

In the meantime? You had better start learning how to Spicky da Spanish, muthafuckas! LOL

Hay Cariño,

Eddie

Latino/as in The USA, pt. II

¡Hola! Everybody...
I usually don't cut-and-paste, but this Latina is such a valuable resource when it comes to Latino/a cultural identity that I thought it was worthwhile. I got it from the official website of the PBS drama, American Family, the only dramatic series totally created and controlled by Latino/as. The writing was by Latino/as, as was the direction -- everything.

Get this: none of the major networks (not even HBO and Showtime) wanted to air this! Check out their website.

I will be offering a series of blogs elaborating on some of the issues raised by Doña Rodriguez... I will be gone all day. Today, as usual, is my longest day of the week.

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-=[ What It Means to be Latino ]=-

by Dr. Clara E. Rodríguez

To be a Latino means that in the 2000 U.S. census, you were counted as one of 35.3 million people, of any race, classified as “Hispanic,” and that you were part of a group that comprised 12.5% of the total U.S. population. It means you are part of a group that now equals, or has surpassed, African Americans in number. It also means that you are part of a group that is growing faster than all other groups (50% since 1990) and is expected to continue to grow rapidly because of high immigration, high fertility rates, and the youthfulness of the current population. Only Asian Americans, who represented 3.6% of the U.S. population in 2000, had greater rates of growth. Finally, it means that you are a member of a very diverse group, in terms of socioeconomic positions, religions, racial classifications, and national origins.

If we look at the Hispanic/Latino population pie in 2000, we see that Mexicans comprised the majority of all Latinos (58.5% or 20.6 million). Puerto Ricans were the second largest Latino group, constituting 9.6% of all Latinos or 3.4 million. However, if we include the 3.8 million Puerto Ricans who resided in Puerto Rico, then this figure more than doubles. Cubans were the next largest single national origin group and constitute 3.5% of the total Latino population, followed by Dominicans with 2.2%. Collectively, the Central American countries accounted for 4.8% of the total Latino pie, with Salvadorans (1.9%) and Guatemalans (1.1%) being the two largest groups among Central Americans. South Americans comprised another 3.8% of the total U.S. Latino population with Colombians (1.3%) the largest group here. All of the other countries in Central and South America constituted less than 1% each of the total Hispanic population. Interestingly, in view of the extensive diversity of national origins, there was a surprising 17.3% that reported they were Hispanic or Latino but did not indicate a national origin. Analyses have yet to be done on this group, but it may be that this fast-growing group represents either those who have parents from more than one country, or, those who consider themselves “Hispanic/Latino,” but do not identify with a particular country.

Although historically there are important regional concentrations of each of these groups, e.g., Cubans in Florida, Puerto Ricans in the Northeast, and Mexicans in California and the Southwest, there is increasing Latino heterogeneity in all of these areas. All states now have Latino populations, many of which are increasing rapidly, and almost all cities are experiencing substantial changes in their Latino mix. For example, Miami now has an increasingly diverse Latin American population, with Colombians, Puerto Ricans, and diverse Central and South Americans increasing their presence. New York City now has substantial and growing Dominican, Colombian, Ecuadorian and Mexican populations. The same is true of Los Angeles and other large cities and many suburban areas.

Being Latino also means that you lay claim to one (or more) of the rich and unique histories that each of these groups brings to the United States. Likewise, each of these groups has had a unique narrative in the United States, involving different times of arrival, areas of settlement, and types of migration and reception experiences. Like so many other groups coming to the United States, some groups came mainly as political refugees, or, political exiles without the benefit of refugee status. Others came as free or contracted laborers, and still others simply as immigrants looking to improve the opportunities in their lives. Unlike most other groups, Latinos have come from this hemisphere. Therefore, they have been consistently impacted by U.S. hemispheric policy and they have had more “va y ven” (coming and going) between their countries and the United States. This has contributed to the sustenance of the Spanish language and multiculturalism within Latino communities while adding new infusions of Latinos to the United States.

Since Latinos have been part of the U.S. landscape for centuries, the nature of the migrations has also varied over time. For example, political immigrants or exiles were more characteristic of the migration from Puerto Rico in the late 19th century, while those who came in search of work characterized the exodus in the mid 20th century. There were also varying methods of migration, where some groups arrived mainly by boat, others by plane, and still others over land in cars, trains, or buses. Some have arrived legally as immigrants, others were undocumented. Some became naturalized citizens, others became citizens because they were born in the United States and still others arrived as citizens or became citizens because their lands had become subject to United States rule. Different groups have also had different receptions in the U.S. at different times.

Being Latino means a connection to the Spanish language, although, in Latin America there are also a multiplicity of other languages spoken by various groups, e.g., the indigenous peoples. Each Latino group coming to the U.S. spoke Spanish, but each country has its particular way of speaking Spanish. Spanish speakers throughout Latin America and the Caribbean understand one another. However, the way the language is spoken varies according to class, regional, ethnic and racial differences within each country. If we think about how English is spoken in Australia, Britain, Brooklyn, New York, as well as the southern, eastern, and midwestern parts of the United States, we have some idea of how the same language can vary with regard to accent, intonation patterns, and vocabulary. Curiously, however, you can be called a Latino, or classified a Hispanic, and yet not speak Spanish very well or at all.

Finally, being Latino means you are a part of one or more groups that have their own unique cuisine, music, and cultural and artistic traditions. For example, spicy, hot food is common in some diets and relatively absent in others. But there are also some commonalties. For example, in the same way that meat and potatoes can be considered a staple of the U.S. American diet -though not everyone eats this – rice and beans are a staple throughout much of Latin America. Pink beans are preferred in some countries, black beans in others, and pinto beans in still yet others and so on. Most members of each group are proud of their own uniqueness and history – both in this country and in their country of origin. However, as Celia Cruz, the great Cuban Salsa singer, has said, “we are all brothers in a different country” and the level of bonding and common identification often goes beyond speaking Spanish.

On Terminology: Hispanic or Latino?

The term “Hispanic” is often used interchangeably with the term “Latino.” The term “Hispanic” was introduced into the English language and into the 1970 census by government officials who were searching for a generic term that would include all who came from, or who had parents who came from, Spanish-speaking countries. It is, therefore, an English-language term that is not generally used in Spanish-speaking countries. The term “Latino,” on the other hand, is a Spanish-language term that has increased in usage since the introduction of the term Hispanic. Some Latinos/Hispanics feel strongly about which term they prefer. Some reject both terms, and insist they should be known by their national origin; still others use all terms and vary their usage depending on context.

Those who prefer “Latino” argue that the term preserves the flavor of national origin and the political relationship between the U.S. and Latin America. Also, they say that it is more culturally neutral and racially inclusive of all groups in Latin America. For example, those of indigenous, African, European and mixed origins are assumed to be Latinos, as are Brazilians, whose main language is Portuguese. In addition, they argue that it is less associated with Eurocentric Hispanistas, who were largely conservative wealthy landowning groups; and lastly, they maintain that it is the term most used in numerous editorials that are written in both Spanish and English.

Those who prefer the term “Hispanic” maintain that it should be used because the data on this population is gathered using this term, and the data should not be re-labeled. It is seen to be preferable for scientific publications because it is seen to be more rigorous and consistent with the data. It is argued that Hispanic is a more universal term because this is the term used by most agencies and other data gathers, while Latino is a regional term more often used in areas where there are large numbers of native Spanish-speakers. In essence, the argument is that this is the term that most people - particularly those living far from Spanish-speaking populations will use. The term includes those from Spain, although it does not cover those from Brazil. It is also argued that the term “Latino” might be legally problematic, for others of “Latin” descent whose families have never lived in Latin America, e.g., the French, Italians, and others might conceivably argue that they are “Latinos” and therefore should be considered minorities.

Dr. Clara E. Rodríguez is a Professor at Fordham University, Lincoln Center campus. Her last two books are Changing Race: Latinos, the Census and the History of Ethnicity in the United States, New York University Press, 2000, and Latin Looks: Latina and Latino Images in the U.S. Media, Boulder, CO.: Westview Press, 1997.

Love,

Eddie

Latino/as in America, pt. I

¡Hola! Everybody...
If you haven’t caught the PBS special, Latin Music USA, then you’re missing a real treat. I’m not always too happy about the way Latino/as are portrayed and/ or studied, but this offering is one helluva treat. It’s well done, authentic, and the people responsible for bringing this together obviously did their homework. What we have here is a look into the very essence of Latino/a culture as told by the people themselves. In fact, Latin Music USA isn’t just about Latin Music, it is the story of America -- of all the Americas.

I was asked to briefly describe “Latin music,” and here’s my totally ad-libbed response:

Latin music is more than a musical genre, it is an urban folklore, a way of life; the receptacle of all that is Latino/a. It is Latinidad itself, the sway of a Latina's hips as she revels in rhythms older than time itself. It is el grito del pueblo set to a clave beat, a fatback backbeat, a dembo pulse. Latin music is at once all things and one thing. It is the exuberance of a joyful of people expressed through the poetry of feet, hands, and heart.

It’s Latino/a Month and I’ll be writing on things Latino/a for most of the rest of what’s left of this month...

* * *

-=[ Latinidad ]=-

I am not African. Africa is in me, but I cannot return.
I am not Taína. Taíno is in me, but there is no way back.
I am not European. Europe lives in me, but I have no home there.

I am new. History made me. My first language was Spanglish.
I was born at the crossroads. History made me.
-- Aurora Levins Morales, Child of the Americas

I’ve been lax this month, ignoring my Latinidad. So today, I have to start from somewhere and I wonder if I can even do it. I mean, to explore the essence of all that is Latino/a -- Latinidad -- is like trying to explore the ocean.

So, I’ll start here, in the good ole U.S. of A. A little about me: I was born in New York City of Puerto Rican parents and so my experience of Latinidad is filtered through those complications. I am light-skinned with blue-eyes, but I am not white. I was born in America, but I identify as a Nuyorican, or as the Nuyorican poet, Tato Laviera, likes to say, an Ame-Rican. I am an old-school Puerto Rican whose beach haunts were Brighton and Orchard, the tar-papered roof tops of Manhattan, and not Luquillo, nor the world-famous surf of Rincon. I don’t speak Spanish... only. I speak it fluently, it rolls off my tongue in quick, New York-paced staccato bursts, and sometimes I season it with English, or a hybrid language all its own: Spanglish. My culture is profoundly African, the ancient Orishas surely looking over my tormented soul, but I am not black. Nor am I Indian, though my spiritual birthplace is Borinquen, the land of the brave and peaceful Taino warriors. I may not have been born in Puerto Rico, but surely, Puerto Rico was born in me. I am none of these things and all of them...

See? I told you it was complicated. But, actually, I’m not. I am, to paraphrase the lovely Aurora, a Stepchild of the Americas.

I hope to give you a glimpse into me and in that way offer you a glimpse of things Latino/a, for, as you might already sense, Latino/as will eventually take over. Don’t worry, we come in all colors, the blood of humankind flows through us. We come in all political orientations too! It is said that the Chicanos in California gave Gore the 2000 presidential election and the Miami Cubans took it away. To be sure, without Latino/as, Obama’s historic campaign would have fallen short.

We have arrived, some pundits say, but I have news for you: we were always here, long before the Daughter of the American Revolution lost her cherry, long before even the first slave ships infiltrated the Caribbean. And I’m sorry Lou Dobbs, but “Spanish is Spoken Here” happened long before your hungry ancestors even thought of immigrating.

There is much to cover here, for while we have indeed arrived, and continue to do so, we are also being targeted as scapegoats for every conceivable social ill. We are at once desired and despised, but I’m here to set the record straight... stay tuned.

WEPA!

Eddie

History of Race Preferences

¡Hola! Everybody...
No foreplay today, getting right to the issue...

* * *

-=[ The Curious History of Race Preferences ]=-

Their leaders seem more intent on vying with blacks for permanent victim status than on seeking recognition for genuine progress by Hispanics over the last three decades.

-- Linda Chavez on Latino/as

Linda Chavez, an anti-affirmative Latina favored by conservatives because of her last name, would have us think that Blacks, Latino/as, and other people of color are looking for handouts and preferential treatment. Ironically, it is she who has benefited professionally and financially by trading on her own Latina heritage. Like many conservatives, she claims that segregation was defeated and white prejudice almost completely eradicated after Congress passed the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. She goes as far as saying (as many black and brown enablers of the racial conservatives do) that it has been liberals that have derailed Latino/a progress. I call those who deny the reality of racism racial conservatives. I addressed their shoddy scholarship earlier (click here).

You might know of Chavez, she testified recently against Supreme Court Judge Sotomayor during Sotomayor’s confirmation hearings. Chavez has a particular dislike for Latino/as in general and specifically for Puerto Ricans, but I will not explore that today. I will address her sub-standard scholarship and self-loathing when I address Black and Brown conservatives. Chavez had to step down as a nominee for Labor of Secretary under the catastrophe known as the Bush II administration because, yes, she hired an illegal Latina immigrant. She denied knowing said individual was here illegally though the person in question contradicted that denial. Later, Chavez herself would issue an admission of sorts and forced by Bush's people to step down.

Therefore, if I call Chavez a hypocrite (she admonished Clinton appointees who did the same), it’s not character assassination, it’s an observation. Calling her a “come mierda” (shit eater) can be perceived as an attack on her character, but -- fuck it -- she’s a shit eater if ever there was one...

Chavez and other racial conservatives believe the United States has made better progress in removing racial barriers than liberals will acknowledge. The shift began, they argue, during the 1950s. And when the Civil Rights movement succeeded in abolishing Jim Crow, white racism had all but withered away. As a result, at least according to Chavez and her masters, affirmative action programs are unnecessary and in fact are a form of “reverse racism.”

Ironically, the current debate over race-based solutions assumes that the only beneficiaries of these policies are blacks, other racial minorities, and women. However, if we define affirmative action as “race and gender preferences codified into law and enforced through public policy and social customs,” then it is indeed strange and peculiar to suggest that affirmative action began when in 1963 President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925. Taking the above definition, often cited by opponents of affirmative action like Chavez, it would be more accurate to mark the beginning date for this legal policy as 1641. That is when laws specifying rights to property, ownership of goods and services, and the right to vote, restricted by race and gender, were first enacted. In 1790, Congress formally restricted citizenship by naturalization to “white persons,” a restriction that would stay in place until 1952.

Understood in this way, affirmative action has been in effect for 367 years, not 46. For the first 330 years, the deck was legally stacked on behalf of whites and males (Fredrickson, 1988). Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger Taney, in Dred Scot, didn’t mince his words when he said: “Can a negro, whose ancestors were imported to this country, and sold as slaves, become a member of the political community, formed and brought into existence by the Constitution of the United States, and as such become entitled to all rights, and privileges, and immunities guaranteed by that instrument?” Justice Taney’s answer to his own question leaves no doubt. We the people, he stated, was never intended to include blacks, slave or free. The authority cited by Taney in his ruling? The Constitution, the courts at every level, the federal government, and the states -- all having routinely denied blacks equal access to rights of citizenship (Harding, 1983).

It follows, then, that from the inception of the United States, wealth and institutional support have been invested on the white side of the color line. This preference, in turn, has led to an accumulation of economic and social advantages for European Americans. On the black side, it has resulted in the systemic exclusion of equal access to economic and social benefits, leading to a disaccumulation for blacks. When Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925 in 1963, he was simply attempting to pry open the doors that had been sealed shut for more than three centuries. Now, after only four decades of “racial and gender preferences,” come mierdas like Chavez and other racial conservatives, have launched a largely successful attack against affirmative action programs that were instituted to reverse three hundred years of disinvestment in black communities. Yet when power and wealth were being invested on their side of the color line, white Americans registered hardly any opposition to the arrangement, nor do racial conservatives acknowledge this historical fact (Steinberg, 1995).

However, we don’t have to go back three hundred years to find the roots of current white privilege. We can look at more recent policies that have been instrumental to racial inequality. But that’s for another post...

Eddie

References

Fredrickson, G. (1988). The arrogance of race. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.

Harding, V. (1983). There is a river: The black struggle for freedom in America. New York: Oxford University Press.

Steinberg, S. (1995). Turning back: The retreat from racial justice in American thought and policy. Boston: Beacon Press.

Imagen Latina

¡Hola! Everybody...
Had a great time last night with my friends... sometimes our get-togethers are too freakin’ cool! I am blessed, for sure. Today, I have the option of going to Fordham Road for a series of free altin music concerts, a movie, or a long walk by the beach... Hope you all are enjoying yourselves, whatever you do.

* * *

-=[ Imagen Latina/ Latin Image ]=-

by Bernardo Palombo

[Note: one of my fave Latin American poems. It was set to music by Orquesta Libre (see video). Below I offer it in Spanish and English]

Indios, Hispanos y negros
Nos vinieron a formar
Raza de todas las sangre
Y un futuro por lograr

A las entrañas del monstruo
Corno dijiera Marti
vinimos, a esforzarnos
A trabajar y a vivir

De Quisqueya hasta El Plata
De Las Pampas hasta La Habana
Somos sangre voz y parte
De esta tierra Americana

En el país de la nieve
Y bajo del sol del palmar
El Latino en todas partes
Busca por su libertad

Americanos todos somos
El Norte, El Centro y El Sur
Con un presente de lucha
por un futuro de luz

Esta es mi imagen Latina
Esta es mi nuevo cantar
Para decirte mi hermano
Busca y encuentra unidad.

* * *
[translated]

Indians, Hispanics, and blacks
Came together to become
A race of all races
With a future to be won

To the Belly of the Beast
(as Martí called it here)
We have come to battle
So we can work, so we can live

From Quisqueya to El Plata
From Las Pampas to Havana
We are our blood, our voice,
Part of this American land

In the Land of the Snow
Under the Sun of the palm tree
Latinos everywhere
Must find their own freedom

All the Americas are here
North, Centrral and South
In a time of struggle
For a future full of light

This is my Latin image
This is my new way of singing
To tell you, my brother
Get together now.

Translated by Bernardo Palombo and Kurt Hollander

* * *

Love,

Eddie